Managing Project Scope Creep with a Difficult Client

I recently spoke with a project manager friend who was struggling to maintain control over her project’s scope. She shared her frustration about a highly influential client stakeholder who, despite being actively involved, was causing significant scope creep and disruption. This stakeholder is known for not taking “no” for an answer, which has left the project team feeling intimidated and compelled to fulfill his every request, no matter how unreasonable.

The project manager explained that this dynamic has been wreaking havoc on the project. The team, afraid to push back, keeps taking on additional tasks at the stakeholder’s insistence without consulting her first. Each small concession adds up, gradually derailing the project plan. What starts as minor deviations from the scope snowballs into a mountain of extra work, throwing the schedule off track.

Now, the client stakeholder is upset because the project is behind schedule—ironically, a direct result of his own demands. The project manager has repeatedly urged her team to run any requests through her before acting, yet their fear of confrontation makes it difficult for them to enforce boundaries. This is a clear example of how unchecked scope creep, especially fueled by a powerful stakeholder, can jeopardize a project’s success.

Tips for Managing Scope Creep

Scope creep can derail even the best-planned projects, but with the right strategies, project managers can minimize its impact and maintain control. Here are actionable tips to prevent and manage scope creep effectively:

  1. Clearly Define and Document the Project Scope – Start with a detailed, documented scope outlining specific deliverables, timelines, and budgets. Share this with all stakeholders to establish clear expectations and eliminate misunderstandings before the project begins.

  2. Implement a Change Control Process – Establish a formalized change control process to assess and manage any requested changes. Evaluate how each change will affect the project’s timeline, budget, and resources before making a decision to proceed.

  3. Prioritize Change Requests – Not all changes are necessary or practical. Assess each request based on its urgency, impact, and alignment with project goals. Focus on high-priority changes that truly add value.

  4. Document Every Change – Keep a detailed record of all changes, including the reasons for the modification, its impact, and any additional resources or time required. This documentation can serve as a valuable reference for future projects and help you identify recurring issues.

  5. Maintain Clear Communication with Stakeholders – Consistent and transparent communication with stakeholders is vital. Keep them informed about any changes, their implications, and how adjustments might affect roles, responsibilities, or outcomes. Open communication fosters alignment and reduces confusion.

  6. Evaluate the Impact of Changes – After implementing a change, assess its effectiveness in achieving the desired outcomes. Regular evaluations can highlight potential problems or areas for improvement, ensuring the project stays on track and meets its objectives.

  7. Learn from Past Experiences – Analyze records of previous changes and their outcomes to identify patterns and refine your change management strategies. Learning from past projects can make future processes smoother and more efficient.

  8. Stay Flexible – Change is inevitable in any project. Adopt a flexible mindset to navigate unexpected developments and adapt to new ideas. Flexibility helps mitigate risks and ensures the project continues to move forward.

  9. Leverage Technology – Use project management software, collaboration platforms, or communication tools to streamline change management processes. Centralized tools improve information sharing and coordination. Ensure all team members are trained on these technologies to avoid confusion or delays.

  10. Monitor Progress Regularly – Track key performance indicators (KPIs) such as adoption rates, productivity, and customer satisfaction to assess the success of change initiatives. Regular check-ins help identify obstacles early and allow you to make timely adjustments.

While these steps can help control scope creep, they may not fully address situations where client stakeholders overly influence the project. For such challenges, additional strategies like managing stakeholder expectations and reinforcing project boundaries may be necessary.

Managing a Challenging Client Stakeholder

As projects progress, stakeholders often review each step and identify additional requirements that weren’t initially included in the scope. This can put pressure on the team and create scope creep. To address this, it’s crucial to manage both the stakeholder and the scope effectively. Here are some actionable steps to help you navigate this challenge:

  1. Regularly Review the Scope – Clearly communicate the initial project scope to the stakeholder and ensure they understand how added changes can disrupt the schedule and impact the team. Regular reviews help control misunderstandings and set boundaries.

  2. Use the Defined Change Management Process – Gain the stakeholder’s buy-in for a formal change management process. Make it clear that changes affect cost, timeline, resources, and potentially deliverables. Require their approval and sign-off for any modifications to the project.

  3. Set Realistic Expectations – Be transparent about what is achievable within the available timeframe and resources. This helps align stakeholder expectations and reduces the likelihood of scope creep.

  4. Schedule Regular Check-Ins – Conduct consistent progress reviews with stakeholders to address concerns, discuss changes, and ensure that everyone remains aligned throughout the project.

  5. Document Everything – Maintain detailed records, from meeting notes to project plans. Proper documentation helps resolve disputes and fosters accountability.

  6. Address Conflicts Quickly – Conflicts often arise during projects. Tackle them promptly and work toward resolutions that accommodate all parties, keeping the project on track.

  7. Encourage Feedback – Foster collaboration by inviting stakeholders to provide feedback. Be open to their suggestions, as this can lead to improvements and a stronger working relationship.

  8. Celebrate Milestones – Acknowledge achievements and celebrate milestones with stakeholders. This boosts morale and shows appreciation for their contributions to the project.

  9. Foster Open Communication – Promote honest and transparent communication among team members and stakeholders. This proactive approach helps identify potential issues early and encourages effective problem-solving.

  10. Stay Organized – An engaged stakeholder may request updates or data at any moment. Keep all project documents, files, and communications centralized—preferably in a cloud-based system—for easy access and to prevent miscommunication.

By following these strategies, you can confidently manage difficult stakeholders while maintaining control of the project scope. This ensures smoother collaboration and sets the foundation for successful project outcomes.

Now that you’ve managed the scope, how do you address your team’s fear of the client stakeholder? Many of your team members are junior, and you won’t always be available to help manage the stakeholder directly. What steps can you take to ease your team’s concerns and build their confidence when dealing with the stakeholder?

Building Team Confidence When Managing Difficult Stakeholders

As a project manager, your role extends beyond managing difficult stakeholders—you also need to empower your team to navigate these challenges with confidence. Here are actionable steps to address your team’s concerns and help them handle challenging stakeholders effectively:

  1. Clarify Roles and Expectations – Ensure your team understands their responsibilities when interacting with stakeholders. Provide clear guidelines on communication protocols, expected behaviors, and how to approach challenging situations.

  2. Equip Your Team with Stakeholder Management Techniques – Train your team on proven strategies such as active listening, conflict resolution, and assertive communication. Familiarity with these tools will help them approach difficult interactions with confidence and professionalism.

  3. Model Calm and Professional Behavior – Lead by example. Encourage your team to remain calm and composed when facing difficult stakeholders. Emphasize the importance of standing their ground while maintaining a friendly and professional demeanor.

  4. Identify Underlying Issues – Help your team analyze the root cause of stakeholder challenges. Is the issue driven by miscommunication, conflicting priorities, or personal frustrations? Understanding the “why” behind the behavior can lead to more effective solutions.

  5. Foster Open Communication and Active Listening – Teach your team to actively listen and empathize with stakeholders’ concerns. Open, honest communication can help build trust, diffuse tension, and improve overall relationships.

  6. Involve a Neutral Mediator When Necessary – If the situation escalates or becomes unmanageable, consider bringing in a neutral third party. A mediator can help bridge gaps, facilitate dialogue, and identify common ground between conflicting parties.

  7. Establish Boundaries and Accountability – Set clear boundaries with stakeholders and outline the consequences if those boundaries are crossed. This approach ensures mutual respect and minimizes disruptions to the project.

  8. Leverage Higher Management Support – When dealing with challenging senior stakeholders, don’t hesitate to seek guidance from upper management. Their intervention or advice may provide valuable support in resolving conflicts.

  9. Maintain a Professional Perspective – Remind your team not to take difficult behavior personally. Stakeholders may act out due to their own pressures or frustrations. Encourage your team to remain objective and focus on resolving issues constructively.

  10. Document All Interactions – Keep a detailed record of meetings, emails, and conversations with stakeholders. Proper documentation not only helps track progress but also serves as evidence if disputes arise.

By following these steps, you can strengthen your team’s confidence while creating a more constructive environment for managing difficult stakeholders. Empowerment, clarity, and preparation are key to turning these challenges into opportunities for growth.

Remember, the ultimate goal is the successful implementation of the project—benefiting not only you and your team but, most importantly, your client. The client stakeholder may worry that the broader business won’t be satisfied unless all stakeholder’s evolving expectations are met as the project progresses. It’s crucial to emphasize that scope creep can jeopardize the project’s success by delaying delivery and preventing the business from receiving what it needs within the expected timeframe. Stay focused on delivering value within scope to ensure alignment and satisfaction for all parties involved.

Conclusion

In conclusion, scope creep can be a major issue in project management that can lead to delays, communication breakdowns, and unsatisfied stakeholders. It is important for project managers to establish clear boundaries and effectively manage expectations from the beginning of a project. This includes defining the scope, setting realistic timelines and deliverables, and continuously communicating with all stakeholders throughout the project.

Additionally, it is crucial for project managers to proactively identify and address any potential scope creep issues as they arise. This may involve revisiting the initial scope and making necessary adjustments or negotiating with stakeholders to prioritize essential requirements over additional features.

By effectively managing scope creep, projects can be delivered on time, within budget, and with satisfied clients. It also helps to prevent strain on project teams and maintains a positive working relationship with stakeholders.

Click here for a post on the challenges of vendor management for CIOs.

The Power of Clear and Consistent Communication

As leaders, we often hear that clear and consistent communication is one of the most valued traits we can offer. While many of us strive to connect and share information effectively, it’s crucial to find the right balance—being transparent yet mindful of privacy and confidentiality.

When communication falters, especially from leaders known for their openness, it can create uncertainty and speculation. Consistency is the antidote. Regular communication helps people feel informed, reassured, and aligned with your vision.

Finding Your Leadership Communication Style

Every leader has a unique communication style. Some are extroverts who flourish in the spotlight, while others thrive by creating space for their teams to take the lead. Regardless of your approach, the goal remains the same: to build trust and clarity through thoughtful, consistent communication.

Practical Strategies for Effective Communication

Here are actionable steps to strengthen your communication and nurture trust within your team:

  • Be Transparent and Honest: Share information openly and avoid withholding critical details or sugarcoating the truth. Transparency builds trust and encourages people to feel confident in your leadership.

  • Set Clear Expectations: Define communication guidelines for your team, such as how often they should provide updates, when to escalate issues, and what level of detail is required. Clear expectations prevent confusion and ensure everyone is on the same page.

  • Foster Two-Way Communication: Effective communication isn’t just about speaking—it’s about listening. Create a safe space for your team to share ideas, voice concerns, and collaborate. When people feel heard, it drives innovation and problem-solving.

  • Be Consistent: Regular communication, whether through team meetings, emails, or one-on-one check-ins, builds stability. A consistent approach demonstrates that open communication is essential to your leadership.

  • Respect Privacy and Confidentiality: While transparency is vital, so is discretion. Understand what information should remain confidential and avoid crossing boundaries that could jeopardize trust.

  • Provide Context: Information without context can lead to misunderstandings. When communicating, explain the background or reasoning behind decisions to help your team grasp the bigger picture.

  • Leverage Multiple Channels: People absorb information differently. Some prefer face-to-face discussions, while others may favor emails or instant messaging. Use a mix of channels to ensure your message reaches everyone effectively.

  • Follow Up: Communication doesn’t end after the initial message. Follow up to confirm understanding, address questions, and reinforce key points. This ensures your team stays aligned and informed.

Building a Culture of Trust Through Effective Communication

Communication isn’t just a leadership skill—it’s the foundation of trust, clarity, and genuine connection within a team. By fostering intentional, consistent, and transparent dialogue, leaders can cultivate an environment where every team member feels valued, informed, and empowered.

Communication is not a one-time task; it’s an ongoing commitment. As leaders, it’s our responsibility to ensure that our interactions support and uplift our teams. Neglecting communication can unintentionally:

  • Create confusion and uncertainty
  • Breed negativity or toxicity in the workplace
  • Stifle opportunities for growth and innovation

The Art of Active Listening

Great communication begins with active listening. It goes beyond merely hearing words—it’s about deeply understanding your team’s perspectives and addressing their concerns with care. When leaders listen with intention, they build trust and demonstrate genuine respect for their team’s input.

Empathy is central to this process. By stepping into your team members’ shoes, you can better anticipate how your words and actions might be received. This heightened awareness allows you to tailor your communication to be clearer, more impactful, and meaningful.

However, insincerity can undermine even the best intentions. When leaders appear disengaged or dismissive, it erodes trust. To listen with authenticity and demonstrate genuine interest, consider these key practices:

  • Be fully present: Put away your phone and eliminate distractions. Show that your focus is entirely on the person speaking.

  • Ask clarifying questions: Demonstrate your engagement by probing deeper to better understand their perspective.

  • Paraphrase and reflect: Repeating back or summarizing what was said ensures understanding and proves you were truly listening.

  • Follow through: Show that their input matters by providing thoughtful feedback or taking meaningful action.

Active listening requires effort and intention, but the rewards are immense. It fosters trust, strengthens relationships, and encourages open dialogue. As leaders, we must continuously hone our communication skills to create an environment where every voice is heard and valued.

Communication is a two-way street. Leaders should actively invite feedback and approach concerns or suggestions with genuine openness. Incorporating team insights into decision-making not only reinforces the value of those contributions but also demonstrates a commitment to growth and adaptability.

Beyond the Team: Engaging Stakeholders

Leadership extends far beyond your immediate team. Clear, consistent communication with stakeholders—whether they are clients, partners, or investors—is equally vital. Providing timely updates and ensuring alignment fosters trust, strengthens relationships, and enhances collaboration.

Great communication is both a skill and an art. It builds trust, fosters clarity, and drives growth. By embracing intentional listening, empathetic conversations, and transparent interactions, leaders can cultivate a culture of connection, collaboration, and success—both within their teams and in the broader world.

The Power of Clear and Connected Communication

In summary, clear, consistent communication is the cornerstone of effective leadership. It fosters trust, enhances understanding, and ensures alignment toward shared goals. To lead successfully, we must:

  • Establish expectations for open, honest dialogue.
  • Listen actively to our team members with empathy and purpose.
  • Create spaces for feedback and collaboration.
  • Communicate transparently with both internal and external stakeholders.

When we prioritize communication, we nurture a culture of openness and trust. This dedication strengthens relationships, boosts morale, and drives better outcomes for everyone involved.

By leading with clarity and consistency, we set an example that inspires others to elevate their own communication. Together, we create a lasting impact—not just on our teams, but on our organizations as a whole.

Click here for a post on the dangers of leaders not listening.

Adapting to a New Leader

Adapting to a new leader’s sweeping changes to the company’s operations can be difficult. But much more so when they have an authoritarian approach that starkly contrasts with your empathetic leadership style. This leader is building a new team that is fiercely loyal to him and aligned with his hardline methods. From your viewpoint, this shift threatens to negatively impact the organization’s dynamics, leaving you uncertain about your next steps. His well-known style centers on himself as the primary decision-maker, and his tendency to micromanage will be challenging to navigate.

How can you adapt and thrive in an environment that seems so at odds with your values?

Change is inevitable in any organization, and it often comes in the form of new leadership.

When a new leader arrives, it can bring about uncertainty and challenges for existing employees, especially if the leadership style is vastly different from what they are used to. As a leader yourself, you may have built strong relationships with your team based on trust and empathy. However, with the arrival of a new authoritarian leader who has a very different approach, you may find yourself struggling to adapt.

It’s natural to feel resistance towards change, especially when it goes against our personal values and beliefs. But as leaders, we must be adaptable and open-minded in order to succeed in any environment. Here are some ways to navigate through this challenging situation and adapt to the new leader:

1. Understand the New Leader’s Goals

Take some time to get to know your new leader and their goals for the organization. This will help you understand their perspective and approach, and it may even shed light on why they have chosen such a different leadership style. It’s important to approach this with an open mind and without making assumptions.

2. Communicate Clearly

Communication is key in any relationship, including that between a leader and their team members. If you have concerns about the changes being implemented by the new leader, it’s crucial to express them clearly and respectfully. This will allow for a dialogue and potentially find common ground.

3. Be Flexible

In order to adapt to the new leadership style, you may need to be more flexible in your approach. This doesn’t mean compromising your values, but rather finding ways to work within the new structure while still upholding your principles.

4. Seek Support

It’s important to have a support system, especially during times of change and uncertainty. Reach out to trusted colleagues or mentors for advice and guidance on how to navigate through this situation effectively.

5. Lead by Example

As leaders, we have the power to influence those around us through our actions. Even if you don’t agree with the new leader’s approach, continue to lead by example and uphold your values. This will not only earn you respect from your team but may also inspire others to do the same.

6. Embrace Learning Opportunities

Change can be a great opportunity for growth and learning. Instead of resisting it, embrace the chance to learn new skills and techniques from the new leader. This will not only help you adapt but also make you more valuable as a leader in the long run.

What steps should you take if adapting conflicts so deeply with your values that you cannot comply?

The above tips can be helpful in adapting to a new leader, but there may be instances where the changes being implemented conflict so deeply with your values that you cannot comply. In such a situation, it’s important to take the following steps:

  1. Evaluate Your Priorities: Before making any decisions, take some time to reflect on your priorities and what truly matters to you. This will help you determine if staying in the organization is still aligned with your personal and professional goals.

  2. Consider Having a Conversation: If possible, try having an open and honest conversation with the new leader about your concerns and how they conflict with your values. This may lead to finding common ground or at least provide clarity on the situation.

  3. Look for Alternative Solutions: If you feel strongly about your values, explore alternative solutions that may allow you to continue working for the organization without compromising your principles. This could mean taking on a different role or finding a compromise with the new leader.

  4. Make an Informed Decision: Ultimately, if you cannot comply with the changes being implemented by the new leader and it goes against your values, you may need to make an informed decision about whether staying in the organization is still the best option for you.

In conclusion, change can be difficult, but as leaders, we must adapt and embrace it to succeed in any environment.

By understanding the new leader’s goals, communicating effectively, being flexible, seeking support, leading by example, and embracing learning opportunities, you can navigate through this challenging situation and adapt to the changes.

However, if the changes conflict deeply with your values and cannot be reconciled, it’s important to prioritize your well-being and make an informed decision about your next steps. So instead of resisting change or feeling uncertain about our next steps in such a situation, let us focus on being adaptable and open-minded leaders who can thrive despite any upheaval. Let us strive towards creating a positive impact in our organizations while staying true to our values. After all, as leaders we have the power to bring about change through our actions and mindset.

Click here for a post on finding your leadership style.

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Importance of Knowing your Business Personality Style

Business chemistry is a popular method for identifying your business personality style. It involves assessing the personal traits that define how you function in the business world. Understanding your business chemistry can help you work more effectively with others, build stronger relationships and achieve better results.

What is Business Chemistry?

Business chemistry is a concept introduced by Deloitte in 2015, based on research conducted by scientists from the fields of neuro-anthropology and genetics. It focuses on identifying four different business personality types that exist: Pioneers, Guardians, Drivers and Integrators.

  • Pioneers are creative thinkers who thrive on exploration and risk-taking. They are renowned for their entrepreneurial spirit and ability to bring new ideas to life.

  • Guardians are practical individuals who value stability and structure. They excel at managing details, processes and procedures.

  • Drivers are determined, results-oriented individuals who enjoy taking charge and making decisions, often seen as natural leaders.

  • Integrators are empathetic and relationship-focused individuals who excel at bringing people together and creating harmony within a team.

Identifying Your Business Personality

To determine your business chemistry, you can take an assessment based on the research conducted by Deloitte. This assessment will ask a series of questions to determine your dominant personality style: Pioneer, Guardian, Driver, or Integrator.

Your business chemistry isn’t fixed and can change with the situation or context. Understanding your dominant type helps you work best in certain situations, allowing you to adapt your behavior and communication style.

Benefits of Understanding Your Business Chemistry

Knowing your business chemistry can bring a range of benefits to both you and your team. These include:

  • Improved Communication: By understanding the different personality types, you can communicate more effectively with your colleagues. This can help reduce misunderstandings and conflicts, creating a more harmonious work environment.

  • Better Team Collaboration: When working in a team, it is important to have diverse personalities that complement each other. Understanding your business personality and that of your teammates can help identify potential conflicts and how to mitigate them.

  • Enhanced Leadership Skills: As a leader, knowing the different business chemistry types in your team can help you adjust your leadership style to suit each person. This can improve employee engagement and productivity.

  • Identification of Strengths and Weaknesses: Understanding your business chemistry can help identify strengths and weaknesses, enabling you to focus on areas where you excel and seek support where you struggle.

Several assessments similar to Deloitte’s model exist, such as the Predictive Index, DiSC assessment, and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Regardless of the tool, the aim is to better understand your personality and its impact on your work style.

When collaborating, understanding others’ business chemistry can align your self-awareness with them, leading to more successful outcomes.

Here are some additional benefits to knowing another person’s business personality:

  • Improved Conflict Resolution: Business chemistry can help identify potential areas of conflict between individuals with different personality types. Knowing this can allow for effective resolution before the conflict escalates.

  • Increased Empathy and Understanding: By understanding someone’s dominant business personality type, you can better empathize with their behavior and actions. This can prevent misunderstandings and build stronger relationships.

  • Enhanced Team Dynamics: Understanding your business chemistry and knowing your teammates’ personalities can enhance team dynamics and collaboration. It allows for a deeper appreciation of each individual’s perspective and working style.

In conclusion, in today’s fast-paced business world, understanding yourself and others is key to success. Business chemistry provides a framework for identifying different personality types in the workplace, enhancing communication, collaboration, leadership, and self-awareness. So, by learning about business chemistry, you can build stronger relationships with colleagues and achieve better career results.

Therefore, it’s important to understand and explore your business personality to positively impact your professional life. Whether you’re a Pioneer, Guardian, Driver, or Integrator, knowing your dominant type can help you thrive in any business setting. From boosting team dynamics to refining leadership skills, the benefits of understanding business chemistry are significant.

Click here for a post on how to assess your chemistry and align with colleagues.

Establishing Data Ownership with Business Stakeholders

I recently engaged with a group of CIOs who are striving to inspire company stakeholders to take ownership of their data. Traditionally, stakeholders perceive data ownership as an IT responsibility. However, these CIOs are working to transform this mindset, encouraging the business to see themselves as data stewards, with IT serving as a facilitator. Once this shift in perspective is achieved, the CIOs plan to collaborate with the business to establish data councils at their companies, dedicated to implementing robust data management and governance policies.

How can they accomplish this effectively?

Encouraging Stakeholders Towards Data Ownership

Establishing data ownership is crucial for any organization as it ensures efficient and effective management of valuable information. However, convincing stakeholders to take ownership of their data can be challenging. As mentioned earlier, one approach could be through education and communication.

The Power of Education

Educating stakeholders about the importance of data ownership is a critical step towards achieving successful adoption. This education can include training sessions, workshops, and resources that help stakeholders understand their role in managing data and how it impacts the overall success of the company.

Moreover, educating stakeholders about data privacy laws and regulations can also encourage them to take ownership of their data. Understanding legal implications can motivate stakeholders to actively participate in data management processes.

Communication: The Key to Trust

In any relationship, trust is built through open and transparent communication. Similarly, for IT and business stakeholders to work together towards effective data management, trust needs to be established between them.

Regular communication about policies and processes related to data management can help build trust and foster a collaborative environment. This can also lead to a better understanding of each other’s roles in managing data, leading to smoother and more efficient processes.

Incentivizing Data Ownership

Incentivizing stakeholders can be a powerful motivator towards adopting data ownership. By highlighting the benefits of owning one’s own data, such as more accurate insights and improved decision-making, stakeholders can see the value in taking responsibility for their data.

Additionally, tying data ownership to performance evaluations or bonuses can also encourage stakeholders to actively participate in data management processes.

Involving Stakeholders in Decision-Making

Involving stakeholders in the decision-making process when implementing data management policies not only helps them feel more invested in the outcome, but it also allows for their input and expertise to be considered. This leads to a more comprehensive and effective solution that is supported by all stakeholders.

Regular Check-ins and Evaluations

To ensure ongoing success in data ownership, it is essential to have regular check-ins and evaluations. This not only holds stakeholders accountable for their responsibilities but also provides an opportunity for feedback and adjustments to be made if necessary.

Together Towards Data Ownership

By implementing these strategies, we can successfully encourage our internal company stakeholders to take ownership of their data. Remember, data is a valuable asset, and it’s up to all of us to take responsibility for its management. Let’s empower our stakeholders to become the data owners they are meant to be.

Conclusion

In conclusion, achieving data ownership within an organization requires effort and dedication from all stakeholders involved. By implementing strategies such as education, communication, incentivization, involvement in decision-making, regular check-ins and evaluations, we can successfully establish a culture of data ownership that benefits both the individual stakeholder and the company as a whole. Let’s continue to prioritize data ownership and work together towards efficient and effective data management within our company.

Click here for a post on how to determine the total cost of ownership (TCO).

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